A New Theory of Dinosaur Evolution

A New Theory of Dinosaur Evolution Its not often that a scholarly paper about dinosaur evolution shakes up the world of paleontology and is covered in major publications like The Atlantic and The New York Times. But that is exactly what has happened with a paper published in the British magazine Nature, A New Hypothesis of Dinosaur Relationships and Early Dinosaur Evolution, by Matthew Baron, David Norman and Paul Barrett, on March 22, 2017. What makes this paper so revolutionary? To grasp this requires a quick briefing on the currently existing, widely accepted theory about the origin and evolution of dinosaurs. According to this scenario, the first dinosaurs evolved from archosaurs about 230 million years ago, during the late Triassic period, in the part of the supercontinent Pangea that corresponds to modern-day South America. These first, small, relatively undifferentiated reptiles then split off into two groups over the next few million years: saurischian, or lizard-hipped, dinosaurs, and ornithischian, or bird-hipped, dinosaurs. Saurischians include both plant-eating sauropods and meat-eating theropods, while ornithischians comprise everything else (stegosaurs, ankylosaurs, hadrosaurs, etc.). The new study, based on a lengthy, detailed analysis of dozens of dinosaur fossils, presents a different scenario. According to the authors, the ultimate ancestor of dinosaurs originated not in South America, but in the part of Pangea roughly corresponding to modern-day Scotland (one proposed candidate is the obscure, cat-sized   Saltopus). The first true dinosaur, moreover, is proposed to be Nyasasaurus, which originated  in the part of Pangea corresponding to modern-day Africaand which lived 247 million years ago, ten million years earlier than previously identified first dinosaurs like Eoraptor. More importantly, the study completely rearranges the lowest branches of the dinosaur family tree. In this account, dinosaurs are no longer divided into saurischians and ornithischians; rather, the authors propose a group called Ornithoscelidae (which lumps in theropods along  with ornithischians) and a redefined Saurischia (which now includes sauropods and the family of meat-eating dinosaurs called herrerasaurs, after the early South American dinosaur Herrerasaurus). Presumably, this classification helps account for the fact that many ornithischian dinosaurs possessed theropod-like characteristics (bipedal postures, grasping hands, and in some species, even feathers), but its further implications are still being worked out. How important is all this for the average dinosaur enthusiast? Despite all the hype, not very. The fact is that the authors are looking back to a very opaque time in dinosaur history, when the earliest branches of the dinosaur family tree had yet to be established, and when it would have been virtually impossible for an observer on the ground to distinguish between a profusion of  two-legged archosaurs, two-legged theropods, and two-legged ornithischians. Turn the clock ahead tens of millions of years to the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, and everything pretty much remains unchangedTyrannosaurus Rex is still a theropod, Diplodocus is still a sauropod, all is right with the world. How have other paleontologists reacted to the publication of this paper? There is widespread agreement that the authors have done careful, detailed work, and that their conclusions deserve to be taken seriously. However, there are still some objections being voiced about the quality of the fossil evidence, especially as it pertains to the earliest dinosaurs, and most scientists agree that additional, confirming evidence will be needed before books on dinosaur evolution have to be rewritten. In any case, it will take years for this research to filter out to the general public, so theres no need to worry just yet about how to pronounced ornithoscelidae.

immune system Essay

immune system Essay immune system Essay 1. A pathogen or infectious agent is a biological agent that causes disease or illness to its host. 2. Bacteria cause illness by releasing chemicals that are toxic to the host or by destroying healthy body cells. Example: tuberculosis Viruses enter the body and take over healthy a cell, which leads them to stop performing their normal tasks. Example: HIV Fungi go into the body then break the cell wall and use its nutrients to grow. Example: zygote fungi Protozoa are singled organisms that feed on other cells. Example: ameba Parasites are organisms that grow and feed on the host some can even kill the host. Example: filaria 3. Pathogens can be transferred by direct or indirect contact with an infected area. They also can be transmitted by the air, water, animal bites and sexual intercourse. 4. The body system that fights off pathogens and infection is called the immune system. The immune system several defenses the first one is the skin. Second, sense the body has openings such as the nose and mouth the immune system builds mucous to trap the incoming pathogens. The last defenses once a pathogen gets into the body is that B cells and T cells are sent to attack it. 5. Nonspecific responses happen the same way in every pathogen such as inflammation and fever. Specific responses are different for each infection because they are specialized to their certain pathogen such as antigens. 6. A vaccine is a substance that is put

Description of Nick Vujicic video Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Description of Nick Vujicic video - Essay Example † he even suggest that he should take the wheelchair to be â€Å"pimped.† This is supposed to make the wheelchair look fancy and flashy, as it is added some accessories such as spinning metallic wheels on the wheels. He talks with a lot of humor about the wheelchair showing the love he has for this facility; furthermore it is the wheelchair that makes him move around. Nick suggest that the hydraulics system that will be installed in the wheelchair after it is â€Å"pimped† will make him bump while crossing the road. He loves his wheelchair very much, and he even say he would find it ‘cool’ if he could play his drums while on the wheelchair. Nick Vujicic explains to the students that he doesn’t have limbs, and nothing happened to him as he was born in that state. There is no medical reason to even explain his situation, but though he has no arms nor legs there is something that he likes about this situation. He says though he has no legs he has his â€Å"little chicken drumstick.† He call that part ‘chicken drumstick’ because resembles one and also his dog thinks is one. He explains how his dog thinks it’s a chicken drumstick, and this prompt the dog to come have a bite, but fortunately he manages to chase it away each time. But this does not make him bitter, rather this phenomena makes him better. Every person who meets him wonder what happened to him, and sometimes he jokingly says its cigarette. He has even been described as an alien but some kids, while other kids freak out when they see him. This â€Å"chicken drumstick† he has enabled him to do several things such as typing , writing, and even learn sign language as he demonstrates the peace sign. This is very inspiring, despite the fact that he doesn’t have limbs and arms he can do some activities such as swimming that most people blessed with arms and limbs can’t swim. He even gave a demonstration playing some drums perfectly. The students are even shocked that he can kick a tennis ball that

Agriculture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Agriculture - Essay Example I also ate kales, carrots and potatoes for lunch. Supper comprised of rice and beef. On the second day, I ate oat porridge and eggs for breakfast, chicken and soybeans for lunch. Supper included potatoes, pumpkin and beef. For both days, I ate bananas, grapes and apples and drank orange juice in between meals. The source of the foods included groceries and stores. Kales, carrots, potatoes, apples and oranges were purchased from groceries while bread, chicken, rice, soybeans, oats and, beef, milk, pumpkin and eggs were purchased from stores. My experience with the assignment is that I got the opportunity to know the various kinds of foods that are grown and processed in the United States. The assignment also gave me a deeper understanding of natural foods and processed food. I further got to discover that there are many foods on the market that have additives and which pose a threat to people’s health. In general, my experience was explorative. In terms of shopping, I managed to shop differently. I was keen on checking the state of the food and the ingredients that had been used in processing. I read more labels with the aim of comparing the ingredients in similar foods from different processing companies. I was also keen on establishing the kind of additives that had been used for instance for preservation and flavoring purposes. At the sores, I asked more questions. For example, I asked about how the foods were transported from their source to the groceries and stores. I also asked what the storekeepers and gro cery owners did to ensure food remained fresh and in good shape. I further inquired whether other consumers were concerned about where the food they purchased came from. During the process, I managed to change my definition of ‘local’ to include additives. The new definition, therefore, became foods that are grown within the Unites States of America and which contain additives that are locally manufactured.

Earthquake Preparedness in Los Angeles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Earthquake Preparedness in Los Angeles - Essay Example Land sliding and mudflows is obviously a hazard in case earthquake jolts Los Angeles. Bush fires are a big hazard associated with earthquakes. Rupturing of gas lines causes bush fires in Los Angeles after an earthquake (Hyndman & Hyndman, 2010). There is a term â€Å"transform boundaries† which occurs when two plates crush past each other and a very limited convergent and divergent activity takes place. Now San Andreas fault is a major fault in California. City of Los Angeles is situated on pacific plate which is slowly moving towards north with respect to North American plate. According to predictable motion Los Angeles and landmass west of San Andreas fault will slide towards San Francisco and then towards Aleutian trench. It is not only the San Andreas fault marking the conventional margin between the pacific and other north American plates but transform faults are major cause of earthquake in Los Angeles. Recent earthquake that damaged the Los Angeles occurred in 1994 and it remained focused on the north ridge area (Hyndman & Hyndman, 2010). Movement of earth’s crust is the cause of earthquakes in California and Los Angeles. North American plate is moving towards east and pacific plate is expanding towards west and the point comes where these two plates pass each other. The North American plate is moving at the speed of approximately 2 inch per year. ... Like other mountains in California and Los Angeles these mountains are also pushed up by the earthquakes in past. Although few of the faults have been buried beneath the basin of Los Angeles and inland valleys but even then many of them can still be seen on the earth surface in the region (Geschwind, 2001). Out of the recent earthquakes in Los Angeles the earthquake of 1994 focused on the Northridge area. The registered intensity of the earthquake was 7.6 on the Richter scale. The earthquake lasted for 30 seconds but aftershocks kept coming for several days. Water and gas pipe explosion, land sliding and collapse of structure resulted in sudden death of about 60 people. Power supply was cut to the houses and because of infrastructural damage people were trapped in their homes. More than 500,000 houses were without electricity supply due to natural disaster. Due to more than 11 earthquakes since 1970, the city of Los Angeles is now known as hazard city (Hyndman & Hyndman, 2010). Due t o structure of the earth and movement of plates in California, one major earthquake is expected in a century. Despite the chances of earthquake in future the attitude of people is quite different and they do not thing such an incident to take place in their lifetime. People are not ready to pay for different improvements to withstand earthquakes in future. Large companies and organizations in the city have managed to construct such huge buildings that have the capability to absorb certain amount of vibration and shock if earthquake takes place. Buildings being constructed now in the city are also vibration resistant to tackle the future earthquakes. Now earthquakes will cause relatively less damage to industrial areas as the buildings are

Salmonella: Causes, Effects and Solutions

Salmonella: Causes, Effects and Solutions There are many causes lead to food poisoning such as chemicals, fungi and microbes. Salmonella bacteria are the most common causes associated with foodborne illness in the world. In Saudi Arabia, as result of the increase of temperature, the environment there is suitable to grow microbes in food and that lead to spoil food, thus occurrence food poisoning. In this research, salmonella food poisoning is discussed and the sources of these bacteria in Saudi Arabia are determined. The research also focuses on the relationship between some of common food with Salmonella, such as shawarma chicken sandwiches. Food poisoning is common among people specially children and oldsters because they do not have enough immunity to resist diseases. There are several definitions of food poisoning but it is simply defined as any illness disorder occur in human body specifically in the digestive system and that because of consuming food or drink which are contaminated with bacteria or toxins. The symptoms of food poisoning are various between people, for example (Gamarra 2008) notes that: The symptoms, varying in degree and combination, include abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, and headaches; more serious cases can result in life-threatening neurologic, hepatic, and renal syndromes leading to permanent disability or death. Although the multiplicity of foodborne diseases which are transmitted through food, the food poisoning that occurs as a result of bacteria come in the fore. Furthermore, food is an important factor for growth of bacteria and it provides an appropriate medium for bacterial colonies. There are two types of microbial food poisoning; first one is real poisoning microbes and that caused by bacterial toxins which are secreted in food, such as Staphylococcus and Clostridium botulinum. Second type is food infection, and that because of the presence of microbes in food is greatly, such as salmonella. Definition Salmonella bacteria is objectionable guest in homes and restaurants and the infection occur when human eat foods which contain salmonella microbes. This bacterium was named after Dr. Daniel Salmon discovered it in 1885(Davis n.d) (7). In general, salmonella is a germ which exists in the intestines of people and animals and spread by their feces. There are different kinds of salmonella and all of them give rise to poisoning. Salmonella Growth survival The suitable temperatures for salmonella growth are ranging from 35 c to 37c, However (ESR Ltd Company 2001) points out that, salmonella TPHI can be survive at 5 c and over 45 c (3). On the other hand, freezing foods hinders the growth of the salmonella, but will not destroy it. Also, the pH of food influences the growth and survival of salmonella, the range in which salmonella will grow is about 3.8 9.5. However, salmonella bacteria can only be destroyed by cooking food for enough time with high temperature and each kind of food has a specific cooking temperature that enough to destroy the bacteria. Salmonella sources Normally, salmonella exists in different places, so there are several sources of salmonella infection. The natural home is the intestinal tracts of humans and other animals, including birds (Cliver 1990, p. 189). Salmonella are usually transmitted to humans by eating foods contaminated with animal feces. The major source is food of animal origin, such as meat, poultry, milk and dairy products, eggs, seafood, that have not been cooked properly, in addition to some fruits and vegetables. Certainly, contacts with animals as sheep and chicken or also pets transmit the bacteria. Although, chicks and young birds carry salmonella in their feces, they look like healthy and the symptoms are unapparent on the birds. (Cliver 1990, p 200) remarks that, the birds can coexist with the microbes naturally. Another source of infection is people and that due contact with salmonellosis people directly or by food handlers and that because of hygienic lack. Salmonella symptoms The symptoms of salmonella infection usually appear within 6 72 hours after eating or drinking contaminated food, and include; fever, stomachache, diarrhea, nausea and sometimes vomiting. The illness is usually takes from 1-7 days and treatment is not required, so most people recover without treatment. However, children and the elderly people have to see a doctor if affected. (Illinois Department of Public Health n.d) (8). Salmonella around the world In last decade, food borne illness are increased at the global level especially salmonella infections and that due to many factors. Gamarras perspective is that, changing food habits which is caused by travel and movement between countries is one of the essential factors ,in addition to that the International trade and the globalization of food production lead to transmission of food microbes between countries(2008). The Outbreak of salmonella food poisoning which is caused by contaminated tomatoes in many states in USA and Canada is an example. On the other hand, the emergence of new strains of salmonella which resist drugs is caused by excessive abuse of antibiotics and organic fertilizers. Table 3. Examples of Large Food-Borne Disease Outbreaks in some countries, salmonella in the lead (Gamarra 2008)(1) Country:Â  United Kingdom Year:Â  1985 Disease:Â  Salmonellosis Number of Cases:Â  1000 Country:Â  Saudi Arabia Year:Â  2005 Disease:Â  Salmonellosis Number of Cases:Â  3336 Country:Â  United States Year:Â  1993 Disease:Â  Salmonellosis Number of Cases:Â  224,000 Country:Â  Germany Year:Â  1993 Disease:Â  Salmonellosis Number of Cases:Â  1000 Salmonella in Saudi Arabia The causes of salmonella infection vary from country to country and that depending on the suitable surroundings. In Saudi Arabia, hot weather, which reaches to 50c in the summer, contribute to spread of salmonella. Under this level of temperature, it is difficult to keep any food outside fridge because it will spoil quickly. Participating women to men working outside the house in addition to changing the traditional food habits lead to depending a lot of people on restaurants. These transformations in Saudi society, contribute to spread fast food restaurants. In view of the Riyadh city, it is obvious that most of the international fast food restaurants such as McDonalds, Kentucky, and Pizza Hut have become many branches of them in last decade. As will as, traditional restaurants are widespread in the city. Regrettably, those restaurants, especially the traditional restaurants, are looking for profit without any consideration of the hygienic applications. Over and above, these restaur ants employ non-qualified staffs who do not have proper certification or experience in dealing with food. Chicken shawarma sandwich is a common meal among Saudis, particularly at dinner time. As a result, shawarma restaurants have spread throughout Saudi Arabia and, according to Environmental Health Office statistics in Riyadh City, the number of shawarma restaurants which had obtained a license by2000 was over 6127. There is a popular belief in Saudi Arabia that, the consumption of chicken shawarma is the major reason leading to outbreaks of salmonella infection cases and that belief without considering to other factors. Many of salmonella food poisoning reports which are circulated by newspapers and T.V refer to chicken shawarma sandwich as a culprit because the main component of shawarma sandwich is chicken, which is mainly the reservoir of this bacteria. Shawarma are slices of marinated chicken or some times lamb which are placed on a vertical skewer. The diameter of shawarma is up to 50 cm and its weight over than 60 kilograms, in some times spices and animal fat or oil is added. For cocking, shawarma is roasted slowly on all sides as the skewer rotates in front of or over a flame for a period of several hours. When the color of surface is change to brown, shawarma is sliced by special knives into small pieces. To make a sandwich, shawarma is packed inside Arabic bread which is Round and Flat. Some time shawarma is served in a plate as a meal with homemade mayonnaise, tomatoes, and green salad. Problem Saudi newspapers announce salmonella food poisoning incidences and they refer specifically to chicken shawarma with a great sensitivity, also it is blamed by journalists. (Rwaishid 2008) from the Hyatt newspaper reported that , about 33 people suffered from food poisoning after eating dinner in a famous shawarma restaurant in Jeffrey town (in the east of Al-Ahsa in Saudi Arabia). The patients were transferred by ambulances to Al-Jafari General Hospital to receive a treatment. Most of the patients left the hospital one day later after received necessary treatment except five patients; one of them was under serious condition and that according to medical sources at the hospital. Following that, shawarma restaurant owner was arrested by the police because they suspected that the cause of the infection is from the food which was cooked in his restaurant. The Environmental Health office said that, all beliefs about poisoning from chicken sahawrma are uncertain until the laboratory results appear. However, the shawarma sandwich involved a large proportion of salmonella bacteria and that according to the final laboratory result. In general, chicken in shawarma might be one of the reasons that occurring poisoning and transferring salmonella infection but, it is not the only reason. Laboratory result in previous event gave a general result without specification from which part of the sandwich was taken the sample. Although the chicken is the reservoir of salmonella, there are other factors that may be transferred salmonella, such as cooks, equipment and some additives to the sandwich as salad and mayonnaise. Basically, shawarma sandwich consists of chicken in addition to mayonnaise and salad. The salad could be the source of infection because may be irrigated it by contaminated water with that bacteria. Water sources in Saudi Arabia are scarce and rare, so water supply is depending on desalination of sea water; however in some areas which are away from the sea digging wells to provide water are common. Although all crops in Saudi Arabia depend on irrigation, consequently some farmers resort to irrigate crops by swamps or sewage especially in villages which are away from control. Irrigation crop by contaminated water is a serious health problem and transmit foodborne pathogens especially when spraying water on the plants and touch the fruit. When the crops are close to soil or under it as carrot and potatoes the possibility to contamination is more. There is an experiment conducted on tomatoes plant by (Jablasone et al, 2004) demonstrated that, there is a potential for transfer salmonella microbe from irrigation water by damage root to tomatoes fruit. On the other hand, when the salad was preparing in the restaurant may be it was not washed well, or could be left in unsanitary conditions which led to spoil. Cooks also may be carriers of bacteria and they did not apply the hygienic rules in work place. Usually in many shawarma restaurants, cooks are preparing sandwiches without wear hand gloves or face mask and that lead easily to infect shawarma. Unfortunately, some cooks do not have a health licenses, or they may have but expired, and this is illegal and contrary with health regulations. In Saudi Arabia there are no official sahwarma factories, as result for that it is manufactured in houses or in restaurants under unsanitary conditions. Primitive and unclean equipment are used and that is certainly an important factor to grow bacteria. To shorten the time some cooks thaw the frozen chicken directly, through hot water and that lead to spread of bacteria on chicken surface. Some times, shawarma is not sold on the same day thus it is leaved to the next day at room temperature which is up to 35 c and that is optimum for salmonella activity. On the other hand, the diameter of shwarma, whic h reach to 50 cm around skewer, is deterrent accessing heat to the center of shawarma and that provide worm clime for bacteria. Usually, shawarma is reheated on the flame for several days and that lead to spoil it, but cooks add more spices to obscure unpalatable taste. Mayonnaise is considered one of the most sensitive foods for poisoning because of the main component of mayonnaise is raw eggs. Moreover, there is a great potential for transmission of salmonella from chicken through the eggs shall .The microbe might penetrate the broken shell then reach to yolks. Widely, homemade mayonnaise is used in shawarma restaurants; however commercially-prepared mayonnaise is more safety but it is often served in luxury restaurants. Reducing the costs and preserving the flavor are the reasons for using homemade mayonnaise. Neglecting mayonnaise outside the refrigerator for a long time or in front of flame all the day during selling shawarma are unhealthy and lead to rapid spoil. In May 1996, Abha General Hospital (in Abha city, south-west Saudi Arabia) received 200 cases of salmonella poisoning caused by consumption dinner which bought from a restaurant specialized in fried chicken. The Investigations mainly suspected the chicken, but the laboratory result showed that the cause of poisoning was the mayonnaise and garlic which are made in the restaurant. The incident report which was conducted by (AL-Ahmadi 1998) demonstrated that: Only mayonnaise and minced garlic were associated with cases. Salmonella was isolated from 124 (84%) of the 159 persons with symptoms of food poisoning. Mayonnaise was prepared in the restaurant using a regular blender. Minced garlic was prepared with the same blender immediately after making the mayonnaise. Unsafe storage of the mayonnaise at room temperature for a median of 6 hours could have resulted in overgrowth of bacteria and a high infective dose of bacteria per serving. Solutions To reduce the incidents of salmonella food poisoning the problem is should be solved from all aspects and that trough manages of the factors which affect on spread of food borne. The solutions are shared between Environmental Health Offices and restaurants in additional to consumers. The applications of hygienic provisions are the most important things that can be observed when the consumer eating in the restaurant and that is apparently through staffs look and cleanliness of the place. Purchasing from open restaurants and small booth is unacceptable and must be banned. In food poisoning cases which caused by shawarma, Environmental Health Officers are usually take samples from the final meal that is containing chicken, salads and mayonnaise, and this way is not determine exactly the source of contamination in the meal. Sampling from each type of food separately gives a certain result to know the source of contamination. Likewise, visiting restaurants daily and sampling from all food and workers are also necessary. Preventing irrigation crops by sewage and creating new methods to provide water are the first step. It can be used alternative means of irrigation system which reserve water, such as drip irrigation system, or recycle swamps and sewage treatment system. In restaurant, salad must be washed and soaked in disinfectant solution for minutes because the bacteria, especially salmonella are sensitive to sterile solutions. Using homemade mayonnaise must be stopped decisively; it is preferable to use commercially mayonnaise. For (Omahen 1996), food scientists at the University of Georgia, Center for Food Safety demonstrated that, commercially-prepared mayonnaise actually reduces the amount of salmonella in foods because it has acid which come from vinegar and lemon. That result was approved by small test in lab, when commercial mayonnaise was added to foods inoculated with salmonella; the salmonella cells decreased. When shawarma is preparing, following proper hygienic application is required to avoid spoil. Establishing factories which make swhawarma under sanitary and clean conditions is a significant point. If swhawrma is preparation in home or restaurant, leaving the frozen chicken in the fridge until gradually thaw is the best way to slow bacteria activity. To avoid cross-contamination in chicken must be throwing off of liquid that resulting from the thaw. Shawerma must be kept in refrigerator at 4 c and it is not appropriate disregard it in room temperature more than one hour. It recommended to reducing the shawarma diameter to 20 cm and the weight to 30 kilograms and that to ensure access the flame heat into center. As well as, increasing acid proportion such as vinegar or lemon is salutary because it changes the pH of food thus prevents the growth of salmonella. When hiring cooks, they must have appropriate qualifications and adequate experience in their field. Qualifying courses for new cooks to familiarize them with hygienic application is necessary and health license is compulsory and basic for all cooks. Conclusion Shawarma may be responsible for salmonella food poisoning in Saudi Arabia, especially in the summer season because it contains three kinds of food which are easily spoilt, but is not the major cause. Mayonnaise, salad, and cooks are main factors contributing to the transfer of microbes and when applying the hygienic condition, salmonella food poisoning will be decreased. Restaurants license must be restudied again and change some conditions to suit modern life. All the solutions may be effective in reducing the incidents of poisoning, but it can not change one of the most important factors that is hot weather in Saudi Arabia.

The Character of Hamlet Essay -- Essays on Shakespeare Hamlet

The Character of Hamlet  Ã‚        Ã‚   This essay will delve into the character of the hero of William Shakespeare’s Hamlet as it develops through the drama, and will analyze the more important features.    Louis B. Wright and Virginia A. LaMar in â€Å"Hamlet: A Man Who Thinks Before He Acts† explain the popularity of the protagonist:    Much of the delight of modern readers, of course, comes from the study of the characters of the principal figures in the play, for Shakespeare has presented them in three-dimensional vividness. We feel that they are living beings with problems that are perennially human. If a modern man is not called upon, as Hamlet was, to avenge a murdered father, he nevertheless must face crises in his own life that remind him of Hamlet’s dilemma. . . (62).    Marchette Chute in â€Å"The Story Told in Hamlet† describes the opening scene of the drama: â€Å"For two nights in succession, just as the bell strikes the hour of one, a ghost has appeared on the battlements, a figure dressed in complete armor and with a face like that of the dead king of Denmark, Hamlet’s father. [. . .] The hour comes, and the ghost walks† (35). Horatio and Marcellus exit the ramparts of Elsinore intending to enlist the aid of Hamlet. There is a social gathering of the court, where Claudius pays tribute to the memory of his deceased brother, the former king, and then conducts some items of business. Hamlet is there dressed in black, the color of mourning, for his deceased father. His first words say that Claudius is "A little more than kin and less than kind," indicating a dissimilarity in values between the new king and himself. Hamlet’s first soliloquy emphasizes the frailty of women – an obvious reference to his motherâ€⠄¢s has... ...World of Hamlet.† Yale Review. vol. 41 (1952) p. 502-23. Rpt. in Shakespeare: Modern Essays in Criticism. Rev. ed. Ed. Leonard F. Dean. New York: Oxford University P., 1967.    Rosenberg, Marvin. â€Å"Laertes: An Impulsive but Earnest Young Aristocrat.† Readings on Hamlet. Ed. Don Nardo. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1999. Rpt. from The Masks of Hamlet. Newark, NJ: Univ. of Delaware P., 1992.    Shakespeare, William. The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 1995. http://www.chemicool.com/Shakespeare/hamlet/full.html No line nos.    Wright, Louis B. and Virginia A. LaMar. â€Å"Hamlet: A Man Who Thinks Before He Acts.† Readings on Hamlet. Ed. Don Nardo. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1999. Rpt. from The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark. Ed. Louis B. Wright and Virginia A. LaMar. N. p.: Pocket Books, 1958.